A–Z index
Chapter 1. 25 August 2017: The Exaggeration of ARSA's Attacks by Ata Ullah and Myanmar's Military
This chapter investigates the emergence of Ata Ullah's armed organisation in northern Arakan from late 2015 and the coordinated attacks of 25 August 2017. Drawing on Rohingya eyewitness accounts and independent investigations, it examines allegations of criminal activities, military intelligence awareness, security forces' alleged failure to intervene, the mobilisation of poorly armed villagers and exaggerated claims by ARSA's leadership and Myanmar's military. Particular attention is given to the timing of the attacks immediately after the Kofi Annan Commission's final report, the military's prior preparations and Rohingya concerns about possible collaboration between Ata Ullah and Myanmar's security authorities.
Chapter 1. Flight from Arakan and the Routes to Southeast Asia
Examines why Rohingya left Arakan, the role of family connections in Malaysia, and the coastal, offshore and overland routes used to reach Southeast Asia. Survivor accounts and contemporary reports document the circumstances and arrangements shaping departures before the May 2015 emergency.
Chapter 1. Origins of the 969 Movement
The 969 movement emerged from older traditions of Buddhist nationalism and anti-Muslim sentiment but acquired new prominence during Myanmar's political transition and the crisis that followed the 2012 violence in Arakan State. This chapter traces the religious meaning of the 969 symbol, the movement's ideological roots, the growth of monastic nationalist networks, and the transformation of the Rohingya crisis into part of a broader narrative portraying Muslims as a threat to Buddhism and the nation.
Chapter 1. Preparations and Assurances of Self-Identification
Examines preparations for Myanmar’s 2014 census, the ethnicity coding system, assurances of self-identification, and concerns raised by Rohingya representatives before enumeration.
Chapter 1. The 9 October 2016 Border Police Attacks: Rohingya Concerns, Armed-Group Leadership and the Political Consequences
This chapter examines the 9 October 2016 attacks on Myanmar border police posts, the emergence of Harakah al-Yaqin under Ata Ullah, and the concerns raised by Rohingya critics about the timing and consequences of the operation. Particular attention is given to the Kofi Annan Advisory Commission, Myanmar's military interests, Aung San Suu Kyi's civilian administration and unresolved allegations of military collaboration. It distinguishes documented events from disputed explanations while placing Rohingya civilian experiences at the centre of the historical record.
Chapter 10. The Burning of Rohingya Villages and the Destruction of Their Homeland
This chapter documents the widespread burning and destruction of Rohingya villages across Maungdaw, Buthidaung and Rathedaung Townships during and after Myanmar's 2017 military campaign. Drawing on Rohingya eyewitness testimony, satellite investigations and human rights reports, it examines the destruction of homes, mosques, schools, agricultural property and entire settlements, including continued burning after military operations were officially declared over. It further investigates the bulldozing of destroyed villages, construction of security facilities on former Rohingya land, disappearance of property boundaries and the resulting obstacles to land restitution and the safe return of displaced families.
Chapter 11. The Great Exodus: Flight to Bangladesh, August–December 2017
This chapter examines the Great Rohingya Exodus from Arakan to Bangladesh between August and December 2017, when hundreds of thousands fled Myanmar's military campaign. Drawing primarily on Rohingya eyewitness testimony, refugee surveys and contemporary humanitarian documentation, it reconstructs the journeys from Maungdaw, Buthidaung and Rathedaung, dangerous crossings of the Naf River and Bay of Bengal, deaths during flight and the separation of families. It further documents the rapid expansion of Kutupalong–Balukhali and other refugee settlements in Cox's Bazar, the humanitarian emergencies facing displaced families and the transformation of the 2017 exodus into a prolonged refugee crisis.
Chapter 12. Camps, Segregation and the Destruction of Rohingya Freedom After 2012
After the October 2012 attacks, the surviving Rohingya of Sittwe and surrounding areas were packed into dozens of barbed-wire camps on the town’s outskirts. Roughly 75,000 Rohingya had lived in Sittwe before 2012; within weeks most were displaced into **caged IDP camps**. Tens of thousands more fled nearby villages to join them. Conditions in these makeshift camps were dire: malnutrition and illness spiked as aid was minimal and poorly distributed. Armed guards and police erected high fences and checkpoints around each camp, enforcing curfews and requiring permits for any movement. Former homes and farmland were abandoned or seized; Rohingya lost legal claim to their land under state orders. Schools and clinics serving Rohingya communities were closed, and children in camps had almost no schooling. With no means to work or farm, the Rohingya in camps became entirely dependent on international aid, though even basic food and medicine were often unavailable. Attempts to return to Sittwe or nearby villages were blocked by authorities and hostile mobs; families feared that nothing remained of their communities except ashes. In effect, by the end of 2012 the Rohingya were caged in “open prisons, their freedom of movement and livelihood destroyed.
Chapter 12. Refugee Testimonies and the Documentation of Genocide
This chapter examines how Rohingya survivors and community researchers preserved evidence of the 2017 genocide following their displacement to Bangladesh. Drawing on Rohingya-led documentation, refugee surveys, medical investigations, eyewitness interviews and international fact-finding reports, it explores the collection of testimony, identification of victims and villages of origin, forensic examination of injuries, authentication of photographs and videos, and corroboration through satellite imagery. Particular attention is given to Rohingya women's documentation efforts, the protection of witnesses, preservation of original-language testimony and the development of evidence archives for historical research and international accountability, without repeating the individual massacre narratives examined in earlier chapters.
Chapter 13. The End of 2012: A Rohingya Society Transformed
By the end of 2012, approximately 140,000 people had been displaced by the violence in Arakan State, overwhelmingly Rohingya and other Muslims. For the Rohingya, the consequences extended far beyond physical displacement: established communities had been destroyed or emptied, access to homes, land, markets and livelihoods had been severely disrupted, and large numbers were living in camps with no clear path of return. This concluding chapter examines how 2012 transformed the social, economic and geographical position of the Rohingya and left them entering 2013 increasingly displaced, segregated, stateless and dependent on humanitarian assistance.
Chapter 2. Nationalist Pressure and the Government’s Reversal
Examines the March 2014 campaign against recording Rohingya identity, attacks on humanitarian organizations in Sittwe, and the government’s decision to exclude households identifying as Rohingya from the census.
Chapter 2. The Exclusion of Rohingya Candidates and Political Representation
Examines the exclusion of Rohingya candidates before Myanmar’s 2015 election, including disputed citizenship findings, inadequate appeals, pressure on Rohingya political parties and contemporary responses from Rohingya organisations.
Chapter 2. The Launch of Myanmar's Military Clearance Operations: From Border Security to the Encirclement of Rohingya Villages
Following the attacks of 9 October 2016, Myanmar's military launched clearance operations in Rohingya-inhabited areas of northern Arakan. This chapter examines the deployment of security forces, military command structures, village encirclement, coercive searches and the extension of military authority over civilian communities. Drawing on Rohingya survivor testimony and international investigations, it considers how an operation officially presented as a search for armed attackers developed into a campaign of collective control and serious human rights violations.
Chapter 2. The Military's Prepared Campaign: Command Structure, Deployments and Operational Planning
This chapter investigates the military command structure, combat divisions, battalion deployments and operational planning behind Myanmar's 2017 campaign against Rohingya communities in northern Arakan. Drawing on Rohingya eyewitness testimony, military documentation and international investigations, it identifies senior commanders, the roles of the 33rd and 99th Light Infantry Divisions, Western Command, Military Operations Command 15 and Border Guard Police. It examines military orders, intelligence, coordination and reporting systems, and the evidence connecting field operations to senior leadership, while distinguishing documented planning from allegations requiring further verification.
Chapter 2. Trafficking Networks, Captivity and Ransom
Documents how trafficking networks confined Rohingya aboard vessels, in border camps and in holding houses, using violence and telephone calls to extract ransom from relatives. Survivor accounts reveal abduction, deprivation, sexual exploitation and failures of official protection.
Chapter 3. Enumeration: Accept “Bengali” or Remain Uncounted
Documents how Rohingya households encountered rejected identity answers, interrupted interviews and pressure during the 2014 census. Community testimony, journalistic reporting and independent observers show how residents willing to identify as Rohingya were left uncounted.
Chapter 3. The Destruction of Rohingya Villages in Maungdaw, October–November 2016
Between October and November 2016, Myanmar military operations devastated Rohingya villages across Maungdaw Township. Satellite investigations documented at least 1,500 destroyed buildings, while Rohingya survivors described soldiers burning homes, destroying markets, looting property and attacking religious institutions. This chapter reconstructs the destruction in Wa Peik, Kyet Yoe Pyin, Dar Gyi Zar and surrounding settlements, including documented allegations of ethnic Rakhine civilian participation alongside security forces and the consequences for Rohingya displacement and land ownership.
Chapter 3. The Discovery of Trafficking Camps and Mass Graves
Documents the discovery of trafficking camps and graves in southern Thailand and Malaysia in 2015, Rohingya organisations’ responses, and the investigations that followed. Examines earlier official knowledge of Wang Kelian, damaged evidence, delayed exhumations and threats against investigators and Rohingya witnesses.
Chapter 3. The First Days of Mass Violence, 25–29 August 2017
This chapter reconstructs the first five days of Myanmar's military campaign against Rohingya communities, from 25 to 29 August 2017, through a village-by-village chronology of attacks in Maungdaw, Buthidaung and Rathedaung townships. Drawing on Rohingya eyewitness testimony, contemporary community reports, satellite imagery and independent investigations, it documents the opening violence in Chein Kar Li, Inn Din, Myo Thu Gyi, Maung Nu, Chut Pyin, Koe Tan Kauk, Gu Dar Pyin and other affected settlements. Particular attention is given to the timing of attacks, the spread of village burning, the displacement of civilians and the importance of Rohingya testimony in reconstructing events where independent access was severely restricted.
Chapter 3. The November 2015 Election and Rohingya Responses
Examines Myanmar’s November 2015 election from the Rohingya perspective, documenting exclusion on election day, community protests, the parliamentary results and the hope and scepticism expressed by Rohingya residents and organisations.
Chapter 4. Abandoned at Sea: The May 2015 Crisis
Reconstructs the May 2015 emergency through Rohingya survivor accounts, contemporary appeals and eyewitness reporting. Documents abandonment, boat turnbacks, deaths at sea, passengers’ efforts to help one another and rescues by Acehnese fishermen.
Chapter 4. Killings, Sexual Violence, Arbitrary Arrests and Disappearances During the 2016 Military Operations
Chapter 4 documents killings, sexual violence, arbitrary arrests, torture and disappearances committed against Rohingya civilians during Myanmar's military operations in northern Arakan between October and December 2016. Drawing on survivor testimony and investigations by the United Nations, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, it examines the targeting of women, children and elderly residents, the destruction of families and the continuing struggle for accountability.
Chapter 4. Rohingya Resistance and Organizational Responses
Examines Rohingya challenges to claims of voluntary “Bengali” classification, ARNO’s demands for correction, international conference advocacy and a joint response by eight Rohingya organizations, including Rohingya Community in Norway.
Chapter 4. The “Buy Buddhist” Campaign and Economic Boycott of Muslims
The 969 movement’s “Buy Buddhist” campaign damaged Muslim livelihoods through lost customers, cancelled contracts and discrimination in trade and property access. This chapter examines these economic pressures and their significance for Rohingya communities already facing restrictions on work, movement and access to markets in Arakan.
Chapter 4. The Chut Pyin Massacre, Rathedaung Township, 27 August 2017
This chapter documents the Chut Pyin massacre of 27 August 2017 in Rathedaung Township, northern Arakan, through Rohingya survivor testimony, forensic medical examinations and independent investigations. It examines the killing and disappearance of villagers, sexual violence against women and girls, attacks on fleeing families, the destruction of Rohingya homes and the identification of alleged perpetrators. Particular attention is given to the community's rejection of National Verification Cards, the experiences of wounded survivors and the preservation of victim records, while distinguishing documented deaths from community estimates of those killed or missing.
Chapter 4. The Political Transition and Rohingya Expectations
Examines the transfer of power to Myanmar’s NLD-led government in early 2016 through Rohingya demands for recognition, dialogue, protection and restored rights. Documents continuing restrictions, Shwe Maung’s testimony and joint Rohingya organisational responses to the government’s first decisions.
Chapter 5. 2013 Anti-Muslim Violence and the Expansion of 969
Examines the 2013 attacks on Muslim communities in Meiktila, Bago Region, Okkan, Lashio, Kanbalu and Thandwe. Drawing on survivor testimony, satellite evidence and human-rights investigations, it documents civilian killings, destruction, displacement, failures of protection and evidence linking nationalist mobilization to the violence.
Chapter 5. Early Armed Mobilisation in Arakan towards the End of 2015
Examines Harakah al-Yaqin’s developing organisation in northern Arakan around the end of 2015, alongside Rohingya accounts of intimidation and official nonintervention. Distinguishes published research, contributor-supplied testimony and allegations of military collaboration.
Chapter 5. Regional Responses and Rohingya Calls for Protection
Chapter 5. Regional Responses and Rohingya Calls for ProtectionThe regional response to the May 2015 emergency developed through a series of appeals, ministerial negotiations and …
Chapter 5. The Siege of Northern Arakan: Humanitarian Restrictions and Information Control
Following the military operations of October 2016, Myanmar authorities severely restricted humanitarian assistance and independent access to Rohingya communities in northern Arakan. Food distributions, medical treatment and nutritional programmes were disrupted, while restrictions on journalists and international monitors obstructed independent scrutiny of reported abuses. This chapter examines the humanitarian consequences, government information controls and efforts to document conditions in affected Rohingya villages.
Chapter 5. The Tula Toli (Min Gyi) Massacre, 30 August 2017
This chapter documents the Tula Toli (Min Gyi) massacre of 30 August 2017 in Maungdaw Township, Arakan, through Rohingya survivor testimony, contemporary investigations and satellite evidence. It reconstructs the systematic killing of civilians trapped along the riverbank, sexual violence against women and girls, the murder of children, the burning of houses containing victims and the reported destruction of human remains. Particular attention is given to named Rohingya witnesses, family losses and community documentation of the death toll, including estimates exceeding 1,600 victims, while distinguishing these estimates from independently documented killings. The chapter examines the massacre itself, leaving Min Gyi's geography and settlement history for a separate article.
Chapter 5. UNFPA, Donor Governments and International Responsibility
Examines international funding and endorsement of Myanmar’s 2014 census, diplomatic objections to Rohingya exclusion, demands for withdrawal and an inquiry, and subsequent assessments of UNFPA and donor responsibility.
Chapter 6. After Disembarkation: Protection, Accountability and Unresolved Displacement
Documents Rohingya survivors’ lives after the 2015 maritime crisis, including shelter conditions, confinement, family separation and reunification efforts. Examines prolonged detention, barriers to reporting abuse and unresolved displacement through survivor accounts and Rohingya organisations’ investigations.
Chapter 6. From 969 to Ma Ba Tha
Examines the transition from 969 to Ma Ba Tha, its campaign for the four “race and religion protection” laws, and its influence on the 2015 election and Rohingya political exclusion. It also documents opposition from Rohingya and women’s rights organizations and the movement’s reorganization after restrictions in 2017.
Chapter 6. Results and Consequences of Exclusion
Chapter 6. Results and Consequences of ExclusionA Published Total with an Unresolved AbsenceWhen the provisional census results were released on 30 August 2014, Myanmar’s populati…
Chapter 6. The Flight to Bangladesh: Rohingya Refugees and Survivor Testimonies
Chapter 6 documents the flight of tens of thousands of Rohingya from northern Arakan into Bangladesh following Myanmar's military operations of October 2016. Drawing on survivor testimony and contemporary international investigations, it examines dangerous border crossings, Bangladeshi pushbacks, family separation, refugee settlement conditions and the collection of eyewitness evidence. The chapter highlights Rohingya experiences of displacement, community solidarity and the continuing struggle for protection and safe return.
Chapter 6. The Inn Din Massacre and the Killing of Ten Rohingya Men
This chapter investigates the Inn Din massacre of September 2017, focusing on the detention and execution of ten Rohingya men by Myanmar soldiers and participating local armed civilians. Drawing on Rohingya family testimony, photographic evidence and Reuters' investigative reporting, it reconstructs the killings, Myanmar's subsequent admission of responsibility and the prosecution and early release of convicted soldiers. It also examines the imprisonment of Reuters journalists Wa Lone and Kyaw Soe Oo and preserves Rohingya community documentation identifying additional victims beyond the ten internationally recognised executions.
Chapter 7. International Investigations, Denial and the Road to August 2017
This concluding chapter of Part 18 examines the international investigations, Myanmar's official denials and the failure to establish accountability following the 2016 military operations against the Rohingya. It analyses the government's investigative commissions, the United Nations Human Rights Council's response, the Kofi Annan Advisory Commission's recommendations and evidence of military preparations before August 2017. Particular attention is given to Rohingya concerns about the timing of ARSA's subsequent attacks, the obstruction of meaningful reforms and the failure to protect Rohingya civilians before the next catastrophe.
Chapter 7. The Gu Dar Pyin Massacre and Allegations of Mass Graves
This chapter investigates the Gu Dar Pyin massacre of 27–28 August 2017 in Buthidaung Township, Arakan, drawing primarily on Rohingya eyewitness testimony, survivor-recorded videos and community documentation. It examines the killing and disappearance of civilians, the discovery of at least five suspected mass-grave locations, the preservation of human remains as evidence and satellite documentation of village destruction. Particular attention is given to the Rohingya community's list of 75 reported victims and survivor estimates of 300–400 deaths, alongside Myanmar's official denial, conflicting casualty figures and subsequent military proceedings. The chapter highlights the importance of Rohingya evidence in establishing the historical record and pursuing accountability.
Chapter 8. Other Documented Massacres Across Northern Arakan, August–September 2017
This chapter examines other documented massacres and attacks against Rohingya civilians across northern Arakan during August–September 2017, focusing on Maung Nu and Hpaung Taw Pyin in Buthidaung Township, Chein Kar Li and Koe Tan Kauk in Rathedaung Township, and additional affected communities in Maungdaw. Drawing primarily on Rohingya survivor testimony, human rights investigations and satellite evidence, it documents the execution of detained men and boys, sexual violence, shootings of fleeing civilians, deaths in burning homes and attacks involving bladed weapons. Particular attention is given to the distinct circumstances of each incident,
Chapter 9. Sexual Violence, the Killing of Children and the Destruction of Families
This chapter examines the widespread sexual violence, deliberate killing of Rohingya children and destruction of families during Myanmar's 2017 military campaign across northern Arakan. Drawing primarily on Rohingya survivor testimony, human rights investigations and United Nations findings, it analyses recurring patterns of rape and gang rape, the separation and killing of family members, and the physical, psychological and social consequences for survivors. It further examines the organisation of military operations, the responsibility of senior commanders, evidence relevant to genocidal intent and the continuing challenges of international accountability, without repeating the individual massacre narratives documented in earlier chapters.