The Human Cost of the October–December 2016 Operations

The Myanmar military operations in northern Arakan during October–December 2016 resulted in grave violations against Rohingya civilians, including killings of men, women and children who had not participated in armed attacks. Survivors described soldiers shooting at people attempting to escape, executing residents after apprehending them and attacking families inside or near their homes. The violence affected communities in Maungdaw Township whose inhabitants had little ability to defend themselves or obtain protection from state institutions.

The experiences of individual survivors provide an essential record of what occurred. Rather than presenting the operations only through military announcements or numerical estimates, their testimony identifies particular victims, describes the circumstances of their deaths and records the destruction of families. These accounts also demonstrate why the Rohingya population cannot be treated as collectively responsible for the actions of an armed organisation claiming to represent it.

Investigations conducted by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and the United Nations Human Rights Office found substantial evidence of unlawful killings during the operations. Amnesty International's December 2016 report concluded that security forces had fired upon and killed civilians in circumstances that went far beyond a lawful response to attacks on security installations. Its investigators considered the abuses part of a campaign of collective punishment against Rohingya communities that might amount to crimes against humanity.

The accounts gathered in Bangladesh were particularly important because survivors could describe incidents that independent monitors had been prevented from investigating inside northern Arakan. Many witnesses had experienced the loss of close relatives, fled through dangerous areas and arrived in Bangladesh without possessions or documentation. Their statements nevertheless provided detailed descriptions of villages, dates, perpetrators and victims that could be compared across interviews.

The United Nations Investigation and the Scale of Reported Killings

In January 2017, a team from the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights interviewed Rohingya survivors and witnesses in Bangladesh. Its report, published on 3 February 2017, provided one of the most substantial contemporary records of violations during the 2016 operations.

The team conducted 204 in-depth interviews, including 77 men, 101 women and 26 children. Nearly all interviewees came from Maungdaw Township, particularly villages affected by military restrictions and operations. The investigators documented accounts of killings, disappearances, beatings, sexual violence, property destruction and other abuses.

Of the 204 interviewees, 134 reported killings they had witnessed or otherwise knew about, while 96 reported that a family member had been killed. Twenty-six interviewees stated that they had personally been shot or stabbed. These figures do not represent the number of people killed across northern Arakan. They describe the experiences and information reported by a particular group of survivors and witnesses.

The distinction is important because access restrictions, displacement and the disappearance of victims made a comprehensive death toll difficult to establish. The absence of a complete list of victims should not be mistaken for an absence of evidence. International investigators documented multiple, mutually reinforcing accounts of unlawful killings, but could not determine the full number of people who died.

The UN findings were especially significant because they included testimony from women and children as well as adult men. They demonstrated that the reported violence was not confined to encounters between soldiers and armed suspects. Civilians of different ages were among those killed or seriously injured.

Rohima: The Killing of a Husband and Four Sons

One of the most devastating testimonies recorded by Human Rights Watch came from Rohima, a 50-year-old Rohingya woman from Yae Khat Chaung Gwa Son village. Interviewed after escaping to Bangladesh, she described soldiers entering her home, restraining her husband and killing him. She then witnessed the removal of her four adult sons.

Rohima identified the five family members she said had been killed as Shoona Ali, aged 35; Ijjod Ali, aged 25; Syed Ali, aged 30; Musa Ali, aged 45; and Yusuf Ali, aged 60. Human Rights Watch recorded these names as part of her testimony, preserving an individual account of a family devastated by the military operations.

According to Rohima, soldiers separated the women from the men and moved them into another building. She survived an attack on that building and subsequently discovered bodies near a pond, some of which had been burned. She believed that her husband and sons were among those killed by the soldiers.

Her testimony also described violence against children. From a place of concealment, she said she witnessed soldiers attacking children with knives and throwing their bodies into a fire. The details are deeply disturbing, but they are part of the testimony that Human Rights Watch considered important enough to document publicly. Rohima eventually escaped with surviving relatives and reached Bangladesh in late November 2016. Her account illustrates the destruction of an entire family's male members and the enduring consequences for a mother who survived to identify those she had lost.

The names recorded in her testimony deserve preservation in Rohipedia because historical documentation must not reduce the dead to anonymous totals. At the same time, the account should be attributed accurately: it is Rohima's testimony, documented by Human Rights Watch, rather than a judicial finding concerning each individual death.

The Killing of Shukur in Kyet Yoe Pyin

Another important eyewitness account was provided by Jamal, a 24-year-old resident of Kyet Yoe Pyin, also known locally as Kari Paraung. Human Rights Watch interviewed him in Bangladesh in December 2016. Jamal described hiding with other residents while soldiers operated in the village. Among those sheltering nearby was Shukur, a 55-year-old man who decided to return toward the settlement despite warnings from his relatives and neighbours.

According to Jamal, Shukur believed that his age would protect him from being harmed. He walked toward a shop, where four soldiers apprehended him. Jamal stated that he subsequently witnessed the soldiers kill Shukur with a long knife. This testimony is significant because it describes the killing of a man who had already been stopped and placed under the control of armed personnel. If the events occurred as described, the killing could not be justified as an act necessary to repel an immediate armed attack.

Shukur's case also demonstrates the vulnerability of elderly residents who believed that their civilian status and age would offer protection. The account challenges any explanation that treats everyone killed during the operations as an armed participant.

The Killing of Civilians Attempting to Escape

Several survivors described security forces shooting at people who were fleeing rather than confronting soldiers. Their accounts identify an important pattern: the use of lethal force against individuals whose immediate actions suggested an attempt to escape danger. Abu Hafsah, a 46-year-old resident of Kyet Yoe Pyin, described taking his family into hiding when gunfire approached the village. According to his testimony, soldiers later fired toward residents and their homes. He said that six acquaintances were fatally shot when they emerged from hiding to tend to cattle.

The circumstances described by Abu Hafsah are important. Caring for livestock was an ordinary civilian activity, not evidence of participation in armed operations. His account suggests that people attempting to resume essential daily tasks remained exposed to lethal violence.

Another resident, Abdul, described seeing soldiers fire at villagers as they escaped. He stated that elderly people and children were among those shot. His testimony described civilians being struck in different parts of their bodies while armed personnel fired from varying distances. Amnesty International independently documented accounts of soldiers entering Rohingya settlements and firing on residents, including people attempting to flee. Its December 2016 investigation concluded that such killings could not be explained as proportionate security measures directed solely against armed attackers.

These testimonies establish the importance of examining the conduct of soldiers at the moment force was used. A civilian's presence in a village affected by armed activity did not make that person a lawful target. Nor could the attempt to escape be treated as proof of hostile intent.

Jawad: The Killing of a Brother and His Children

Jawad, a 23-year-old resident of Dar Gyi Zar, provided another account of violence against family members. Human Rights Watch recorded his testimony concerning soldiers firing at civilians and the deaths of his older brother and two children. Jawad stated that he watched from an embankment as soldiers killed his brother and the two children before placing their bodies in a fire. He described the soldiers as firing without distinguishing between adults and children.

The account is significant because it concerns victims from the same family, including children who could not reasonably be regarded as armed combatants. It also illustrates the psychological burden placed on surviving relatives who witnessed the deaths but were unable to intervene. Jawad's testimony forms part of a wider body of evidence concerning violence against children during the operations. The UN Human Rights Office subsequently recorded additional allegations of children being killed, including infants and young children.

The deaths of children are especially important in assessing the nature of the military campaign. Where soldiers knowingly killed children or used force indiscriminately in their presence, the conduct cannot be explained simply by reference to the existence of an armed security threat elsewhere in the region.

Children as Direct Victims of Violence

The United Nations investigation published in February 2017 documented accounts of serious violence against Rohingya children. Witnesses described children being shot, beaten, attacked with knives and killed during military operations. The investigators interviewed 26 children directly, while adult survivors provided further information about violence against younger family members. Some accounts concerned children killed while accompanying their parents or attempting to escape. Others described children attacked inside homes or after becoming separated from relatives.

The UN report recorded particularly grave allegations involving infants and young children. Such testimony requires careful treatment because the violence described is extreme, the victims were especially vulnerable and investigators faced significant obstacles to obtaining forensic evidence. Nevertheless, the accounts were not isolated from the broader evidence. They were gathered during a structured investigation involving multiple interviews and efforts to assess consistency and credibility. The report concluded that the violations described indicated a pattern of serious abuses against Rohingya civilians.

For Rohingya families, the killing of children represented more than the immediate loss of life. Parents and surviving siblings faced lasting trauma, while entire family structures were disrupted. Children who survived could be left without parents, homes or the support networks necessary for their development. A Rohingya-centred historical account must therefore document children as victims in their own right, not merely as an additional category within general casualty estimates.

The Discovery of Bodies and the Search for Missing Relatives

The aftermath of military violence created further suffering for survivors attempting to locate relatives. Some residents who returned to affected villages reported finding bodies in fields, beside houses or in shallow graves. Others found clothing and personal belongings but no identifiable remains.

Ali, a 52-year-old resident of Kyet Yoe Pyin, told Human Rights Watch that he returned to the village after several days away and discovered bodies in different locations. He described shallow graves from which animals had disturbed human remains. Ali identified four men whose bodies he and other residents found: Kadir Hussein, aged 60; Nur Alam, aged 50; Kala Mian, aged 30; and Mohamed Rashid, aged 26. He also reported that Shukur, whose killing was described by Jamal, remained missing.

According to Ali, residents attempted to record the names of people who had disappeared during the violence. They counted 76 individuals whose whereabouts were unknown. This was a locally compiled figure reported by a witness, not an independently verified count of all missing persons in the township. The testimony demonstrates how surviving villagers undertook the work of identifying victims when official institutions failed to provide reliable information. Families attempted to locate bodies, establish who had died and determine whether missing relatives might still be alive.

Such efforts were essential to preserving the historical record. Without names, locations and witness accounts, deaths and disappearances could remain undocumented, leaving families without confirmation of what had happened.

The Question of Civilian Status and Collective Punishment

The documented killings must be assessed against the distinction between individuals who participated in armed attacks and the civilian population. Myanmar authorities had the responsibility to investigate criminal acts and apprehend suspects through lawful means. That responsibility did not permit soldiers to kill unarmed residents, execute detained individuals or fire indiscriminately at families.

The survivor accounts examined in this chapter concern people engaged in ordinary civilian activities, including caring for livestock, remaining at home, sheltering relatives and attempting to escape. Several victims were children or elderly people. Others were reportedly under the physical control of soldiers when killed.

Amnesty International concluded in December 2016 that the military campaign involved collective punishment of Rohingya communities. The UN Human Rights Office's subsequent investigation documented patterns of violence that raised serious questions under international criminal law. For Rohingya survivors, the distinction between armed actors and civilians was not an abstract legal issue. It determined whether the actions of a small organisation could be used to justify violence against families who had neither participated in nor approved of its operations.

The allegations surrounding Ata Ullah's organisation, including questions concerning its leadership and possible outside relationships, remain matters for separate investigation. They do not alter the responsibility of Myanmar security forces for unlawful killings committed during their operations.

The Limits of the Available Death Toll

No comprehensive, independently verified death toll was established for the October–December 2016 military operations. The restrictions on access to northern Arakan, the movement of displaced families and the disappearance of bodies made systematic enumeration extremely difficult. The UN Human Rights Office's 204 interviews provide substantial evidence of killings but cannot be extrapolated directly to the entire affected population. Likewise, individual village estimates and locally compiled lists require careful examination to avoid double-counting or treating missing persons automatically as confirmed dead.

This limitation should not obscure the evidence concerning particular incidents. Witnesses identified victims by name, described where they were killed and provided accounts that international investigators considered credible enough to publish. Rohipedia should preserve these distinctions. A named victim supported by an identifiable witness is a different category of evidence from an estimated regional death toll. Both may be historically important, but they should not be presented as though they possess the same degree of verification.

The available investigations nevertheless establish that Rohingya civilians were unlawfully killed during the 2016 operations and that the full scale of the violence remained difficult to determine because of restrictions imposed by the authorities.

The Survivors' Demand for Accountability

The testimonies of Rohima, Jamal, Jawad, Abu Hafsah, Abdul and Ali reveal the human consequences of the 2016 military operations through the experiences of identifiable families and communities. Their accounts describe people killed inside homes, elderly residents attacked after apprehension, children killed alongside relatives and civilians shot while attempting to escape. These testimonies were recorded by international human rights investigators, but their historical significance rests equally in the voices of Rohingya survivors. They preserve names, relationships and circumstances that would otherwise risk disappearing from the public record.

Accountability requires more than acknowledgement that abuses occurred. It requires identifying those who carried out unlawful killings, examining the orders and command structures under which they operated and preserving evidence capable of supporting independent investigation. The killing of Rohingya civilians cannot be justified by the actions of an armed organisation, the existence of a security emergency or the political disputes surrounding the region. The victims' civilian status and the circumstances of their deaths remain central to assessing responsibility.

Part B of this chapter examines the connected evidence of sexual violence, arbitrary detention, torture and enforced disappearances, including the experiences of Rohingya women and girls and the continuing uncertainty faced by families whose relatives were taken away by security forces.

Sexual Violence Against Rohingya Women and Girls

During the October–December 2016 military operations in northern Arakan, Rohingya women and girls were subjected to rape, gang rape, sexual assault, humiliation and other forms of gender-based violence. Testimonies gathered by Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International and the United Nations Human Rights Office described attacks committed by Myanmar security personnel against women who had remained in their homes, attempted to protect their children or become separated from their families.

Sexual violence was not confined to isolated confrontations between individual soldiers and civilians. Investigators documented incidents involving groups of armed personnel, assaults during household searches and attacks on women who were unable to escape military operations. Some survivors reported being assaulted by several soldiers, while others described witnessing the abuse of female relatives or neighbours.

For Rohingya survivors, these violations carried consequences extending beyond physical injury. Women faced the loss of personal security, separation from family members, psychological trauma and the possibility of rejection or humiliation within communities where discussing sexual violence could be extremely difficult. The danger of retaliation against survivors and their relatives further complicated efforts to report crimes.

The evidence collected during the 2016 operations established that sexual violence was an important component of the wider pattern of abuses against Rohingya civilians. It also demonstrated why women must be recognised as witnesses to their own experiences rather than treated merely as secondary victims of a military campaign directed primarily against men.

Fatimah: A Survivor's Account of Rape in a Paddy Field

Amnesty International's December 2016 investigation recorded the testimony of Fatimah, a 32-year-old Rohingya woman who fled to Bangladesh after being assaulted by Myanmar soldiers.

Fatimah described soldiers entering her village and forcibly taking her into a paddy field. According to her account, three military personnel raped her. She lost consciousness during the assault and regained awareness the following morning, unable to stand or walk normally.

Her testimony described severe physical suffering and the difficulty of escaping after the attack. The assault occurred in an agricultural area where she had little possibility of obtaining immediate protection or medical assistance.

Fatimah's experience illustrates how military personnel could use their control over civilian areas to isolate women from their families and subject them to sexual violence. Her testimony was among the accounts Amnesty International used to document the conduct of Myanmar security forces during the 2016 campaign.

The significance of her account lies not only in the violence she described but also in her survival and willingness to provide evidence. In circumstances where survivors risked stigma, intimidation and further harm, recording such testimony required particular attention to confidentiality and personal dignity.

Fatima: Assault Inside a Family Home

Human Rights Watch's February 2017 investigation documented the experience of a Rohingya woman identified by the pseudonym Fatima, who described an attack in Kyet Yoe Pyin village during November 2016.

Fatima stated that four armed soldiers entered her house while she was with her young children. According to her testimony, one soldier restrained the children while others seized her arms. She described being overpowered by men carrying firearms and knives.

Her account demonstrates the vulnerability of women assaulted inside their own homes, particularly when children were present and unable to intervene. The presence of armed personnel meant that resistance could expose both the woman and her children to further violence.

Human Rights Watch interviewed nine Rohingya women who reported being raped or gang raped by Myanmar security personnel during the October–December operations. These interviews formed part of a wider investigation into sexual violence against women and girls in northern Arakan.

The documented cases challenged the Myanmar authorities' repeated attempts to dismiss allegations of rape. They also showed that the violence occurred in ordinary residential settings, including family homes where women had remained in the expectation that their civilian status would provide some protection.

Sexual Violence Witnessed by Rohingya Men

Some Rohingya men also provided eyewitness testimony concerning sexual violence against women in their villages. These accounts are important because they describe incidents observed from nearby hiding places or after soldiers had entered residential areas.

Kasim, a resident of Kyet Yoe Pyin interviewed by Human Rights Watch in December 2016, described soldiers dragging women from houses, forcibly removing clothing and sexually assaulting them in residential compounds. His testimony indicated that some assaults occurred openly during military raids.

Another witness, Jamal, described soldiers attacking women who had remained in the village after male relatives fled. He reported seeing women subjected to severe violence and described the death of a woman who had recently given birth.

Jawad, a resident of Dar Gyi Zar, described soldiers taking a woman into a house during an operation. He reported hearing her screams and later finding her seriously injured. According to his testimony, she died despite efforts by residents to obtain medical assistance. He believed that she had been gang raped, although he did not personally witness what occurred inside the building.

The distinction between direct observation and conclusions drawn from surrounding circumstances is important. Witnesses could provide reliable evidence concerning soldiers entering a building, the sounds they heard and the condition of a victim afterward, without necessarily having observed every act committed inside.

Together, these accounts demonstrate that allegations of sexual violence were not based solely on statements from individual survivors. Other Rohingya residents also described incidents involving women subjected to abuse during the military operations.

The United Nations Findings on Sexual Violence

The United Nations Human Rights Office's February 2017 report documented extensive allegations of rape and other forms of sexual violence against Rohingya women and girls.

The investigation was based on interviews with Rohingya refugees who had escaped the 2016 operations. Among the 204 people interviewed, a substantial proportion reported rape or possessed information concerning incidents of sexual violence.

These findings must be interpreted carefully. The interviewees were survivors and witnesses selected for a human rights investigation, not a statistically representative sample of the entire Rohingya population. The reported percentages therefore cannot be used to calculate the proportion of all Rohingya women who experienced rape.

Nevertheless, the consistency of accounts across different villages and witnesses was significant. Investigators documented allegations involving multiple perpetrators, assaults during military operations and violence against women who were unable to escape.

The UN report concluded that the information collected indicated widespread and serious human rights violations. Its findings strengthened the demand for an independent investigation capable of identifying perpetrators and examining the responsibility of military commanders.

The Government's Denial of Rape Allegations

Myanmar authorities repeatedly rejected reports of sexual violence committed by security personnel. In December 2016, the Information Committee associated with the State Counsellor's Office issued a statement dismissing allegations of rape during the clearance operations.

The statement was accompanied by material portraying the allegations as fabricated. It referred to interviews conducted by a government investigation commission and suggested that inconsistencies in testimony undermined the credibility of survivors.

Human Rights Watch subsequently examined the government's handling of these allegations and raised serious concerns about the interviewing process. The organisation noted that the authorities had exposed the identities of women questioned about sexual violence and that the interviews did not follow accepted safeguards for survivors.

Such procedures created risks of intimidation, retaliation and public humiliation. They also raised questions about whether the investigation was designed to establish the truth or to support a predetermined denial.

The government's rejection of allegations must therefore be considered alongside the independently gathered testimonies of Rohingya women and witnesses. The existence of official denials did not invalidate the evidence collected by international investigators.

Arbitrary Arrests of Rohingya Men

The military operations were accompanied by extensive arrests of Rohingya men and boys. Amnesty International documented cases in which soldiers and Border Guard Police detained residents without providing information about the charges against them or the legal basis for their detention.

Arrests were reported during village searches, at checkpoints and following accusations of association with armed attackers. In some cases, security personnel entered homes and removed male residents while their families watched.

Amnesty International reported that hundreds of Rohingya men had been arrested, including village elders, businessmen and community leaders. The targeting of such individuals was significant because they often occupied positions of responsibility within their communities.

The detention of respected local figures could weaken a village's ability to organise assistance, communicate with authorities or challenge abuses. Families were frequently unable to obtain reliable information concerning the whereabouts of detained relatives.

The absence of transparent procedures made it difficult to distinguish lawful arrests based on specific evidence from arbitrary detention imposed through collective suspicion.

Kamal's Account of Men Taken Away by Soldiers

Human Rights Watch recorded the testimony of Kamal, a 32-year-old resident of Kyet Yoe Pyin, who described soldiers arresting men during an operation in October 2016.

Kamal stated that he watched soldiers enter neighbouring houses, restrain residents with ropes and take them toward waiting vehicles. Among those detained were two of his uncles.

He reported personally observing approximately nine people being taken away and hearing that many others had been arrested. The larger number was information he received from others rather than a count he witnessed directly.

His account illustrates how arrests occurred in circumstances where residents were unable to challenge the actions of armed personnel or obtain immediate information about the detainees' destinations.

For families, the removal of relatives created uncertainty that could continue long after the military operation ended. Without access to detention records or legal representation, they could not establish whether their relatives remained alive, had been transferred elsewhere or had been killed.

Torture, Beatings and Coercive Interrogation

Rohingya survivors also described beatings, threats and other forms of physical abuse during searches and detention operations. The UN Human Rights Office documented accounts of torture and ill-treatment, including assaults intended to obtain information about suspected militants.

Such violence could occur when soldiers demanded the names or locations of armed-group members, questioned residents about weapons or accused them of concealing information. The use of physical force against detainees raised serious concerns because people held by security personnel were under state control and entitled to protection against torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment.

For Rohingya residents, the risk of coercive interrogation was heightened by the absence of independent legal assistance and the authorities' longstanding restrictions on their rights. International investigations documented patterns of physical abuse that could not be justified as ordinary investigative measures. The prohibition of torture applies regardless of the seriousness of the offence being investigated or the existence of a security emergency.

Enforced Disappearances and Missing Family Members

One of the most distressing consequences of the 2016 operations was the disappearance of Rohingya residents after they had been taken into custody or last seen in the presence of security personnel.

Families described soldiers arresting relatives and transporting them away without identifying the detention location. Subsequent inquiries often produced no reliable information concerning whether the detainees were alive or where they were being held.

The UN Human Rights Office recorded numerous reports of disappearances among the refugees interviewed in Bangladesh. Amnesty International likewise documented cases in which families were not informed of charges or the whereabouts of arrested relatives.

Not every missing-person case can automatically be classified as an enforced disappearance. Under international law, that classification requires particular elements, including deprivation of liberty involving state agents or their authorisation, support or acquiescence, followed by refusal to acknowledge the detention or concealment of the person's fate or whereabouts.

Nevertheless, the reported pattern of detention followed by the absence of information raised serious concerns about possible enforced disappearances.

For relatives, the uncertainty created an enduring form of suffering. Families could not mourn a confirmed death, arrange the return of a detained person or pursue ordinary legal remedies. The disappearance of husbands, fathers, sons and brothers also placed additional economic and caregiving responsibilities on surviving family members.

The Particular Vulnerability of Rohingya Women

The combined effects of sexual violence, detention and disappearances placed Rohingya women in an especially vulnerable position. Women who survived rape faced physical injuries and psychological trauma, often without reliable access to medical treatment. Those whose husbands or adult sons had been arrested could suddenly become responsible for supporting children and elderly relatives.

The loss of family members also increased vulnerability during displacement. Women travelling with young children or without adult relatives faced difficulties obtaining shelter, food, transportation and protection.

Some survivors were reluctant to disclose sexual violence because of fear of stigma or concern for their families' safety. Human rights investigators therefore had to approach testimony with sensitivity, recognising that the number of women willing or able to report rape might not reflect the full extent of abuse.

Rohipedia's documentation should preserve the experiences of these women without exposing survivors to unnecessary identification or treating their suffering as anonymous evidence. Where pseudonyms were used by investigators, those protections should be maintained.

Responsibility and the Need for Independent Investigation

The evidence concerning sexual violence, arbitrary detention, torture and disappearances raises questions about both individual criminal responsibility and the conduct of Myanmar's security institutions.

Soldiers and police officers who committed rape, torture or unlawful detention could bear responsibility for their actions. Commanders could also face responsibility where evidence established the relevant requirements concerning authority, knowledge and failure to prevent or punish crimes.

The repeated occurrence of similar abuses across affected communities warranted investigation into whether the violations were tolerated, encouraged or directed through operational practices. However, identifying the responsibility of particular commanders requires evidence concerning the relevant units, orders and command relationships.

Myanmar's official denials and restrictions on independent investigations made such accountability more difficult. They also reinforced the importance of preserving testimony collected by international organisations and Rohingya survivors.

The abuses documented during the 2016 operations cannot be justified by the activities of Harakah al-Yaqin or by unresolved allegations concerning Ata Ullah's relationships with Myanmar military figures. Responsibility for rape, torture, unlawful detention and disappearance rests with those who committed, ordered or otherwise became legally responsible for the violations.

The Historical Significance of the Survivors' Testimonies

The testimony of Rohingya women and men collected during and immediately after the 2016 operations provides a record of violations that might otherwise have remained hidden.

Survivors described rape inside homes and agricultural fields, women assaulted in the presence of children, men restrained and taken away, and families unable to obtain information concerning detained relatives. These experiences reveal the human consequences of security operations conducted without effective protection for civilians.

The reports of Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and the United Nations Human Rights Office established substantial evidence of grave abuses and challenged the Myanmar authorities' repeated dismissals of survivor accounts.

Part A and Part B together document the killings, sexual violence, arbitrary arrests, torture and disappearances that affected Rohingya civilians during the 2016 military operations. The next chapter examines restrictions on humanitarian access, independent reporting and the ability of international organisations to reach affected communities, without repeating the individual survivor cases documented here.