U Nu (25 May 1907 – 14 February 1995), also known as Thakin Nu, was a Burmese independence activist, politician, writer and Buddhist leader who became the first Prime Minister of independent Burma, now Myanmar. He was one of the most prominent civilian political figures of Burma’s parliamentary era and served as prime minister during three periods between independence in 1948 and the military coup of 1962. His long political career connected the anti-colonial movement, independence, parliamentary government, the political struggles of the 1950s and later opposition to military rule.
Early life and education
U Nu was born in Wakema in the Irrawaddy delta region of British Burma on 25 May 1907. He studied at Rangoon University and graduated in 1929 before working as a teacher and becoming increasingly involved in writing, journalism and nationalist politics. Rangoon University was an important centre of political activity during the colonial period, and U Nu became one of the prominent participants in the student movement. His experiences during these years helped shape his later political career and his commitment to Burmese independence.
During the 1930s, U Nu became particularly prominent through the student movement and the major Rangoon University strike of 1936. He belonged to a generation of young nationalists who challenged British colonial rule and later became important figures in Burma’s independence movement. Like several Burmese nationalists of the period, he adopted the title Thakin, meaning “master,” a title deliberately used by nationalists to challenge the colonial hierarchy in which Europeans were commonly addressed as masters.
Independence movement
U Nu became active in the Dobama Asiayone nationalist movement and later played an important role in the Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League (AFPFL). During the Second World War, Burma experienced Japanese occupation and profound political upheaval. U Nu held government positions during the Japanese-sponsored administration, while the broader nationalist movement evolved as Burmese political leaders reconsidered their relationship with Japan and the future political independence of the country.
Following the war, Aung San became the principal leader of negotiations concerning Burma’s independence from Britain. His assassination, together with several members of his cabinet, on 19 July 1947 dramatically altered the country's political leadership at a critical moment. U Nu subsequently assumed a leading role in the transition to independence and became the central civilian political figure of the new state. When Burma formally became independent on 4 January 1948, U Nu became its first prime minister.
Prime Minister of Burma
U Nu headed Burma during much of its parliamentary-democratic period, serving as prime minister from 1948 to 1956, again from 1957 to 1958, and following the 1960 election from 1960 until 1962. His governments had to build the institutions of a newly independent state while confronting communist rebellion, ethnic armed conflicts, economic difficulties, disputes concerning federalism and serious divisions within the governing AFPFL. These challenges made the first years of independence politically unstable and placed considerable pressure on the civilian government.
Despite these difficulties, parliamentary institutions, political parties and elections continued through much of U Nu’s period in government. Internationally, his government generally followed a policy of neutralism and non-alignment during the Cold War, seeking to avoid firm alignment with either the Western or communist blocs. Burma consequently developed a foreign policy intended to preserve its independence while maintaining relations with countries holding different political and ideological positions.
Buddhism and politics
Buddhism occupied an important place in U Nu’s personal life and political thought. He was deeply religious and supported Buddhist institutions and religious activities while serving in government. His administration supported the Sixth Buddhist Council, held in Rangoon from 1954 to 1956, an important international gathering devoted to the preservation and study of Theravada Buddhist teachings. Religion therefore became an important component of both his personal identity and his public political life.
During his later premiership, U Nu supported legislation that gave Buddhism a special constitutional position as the state religion. This became controversial in Burma’s ethnically and religiously diverse society, particularly among some non-Buddhist minority communities. The debate demonstrated the difficulty of balancing the Buddhist identity of much of the majority population with the religious diversity of a country containing Muslim, Christian and other minority communities.
U Nu and Arakan
Arakan was one of the regions where questions concerning ethnicity, administration, political representation and proposed statehood became important during U Nu’s governments. Muslim political representatives from northern Arakan expressed concern about their position within proposals for an Arakan State and sought arrangements that they believed would provide greater political protection, representation or direct administrative relations with the central government. These debates became particularly significant in the predominantly Muslim areas of northern Arakan.
One prominent Muslim political figure was Sultan Mahmud, who served as a health minister and advocated a separate administrative arrangement for the predominantly Muslim areas of northern Arakan. Discussions involving the political and administrative future of the region eventually contributed to the establishment of the Mayu Frontier Administration under U Nu’s government in 1961. This development later became an important reference point in accounts of the political and administrative history of northern Arakan.
Mayu Frontier Administration
The Mayu Frontier Administration was established in northern Arakan under U Nu’s government in 1961. Its administrative area included Maungdaw, Buthidaung and part of Rathedaung, and it was administered separately under the authority of the central government rather than through the ordinary administrative structure of Arakan. The arrangement emerged against the background of political debates concerning Arakan statehood, security and demands from Muslim political representatives in northern Arakan.
Historical accounts differ on some details concerning the precise administrative character and establishment of the Mayu Frontier Administration, but the special arrangement became a significant feature of northern Arakan during this period. For the political history of the Rohingya-populated region, it remains important because it represented a distinct administrative arrangement under the central Burmese government. The administration continued for a short period after U Nu’s removal from power before the military authorities eventually terminated the special arrangement and transferred the area to other administrative control in 1964.
Political crisis and caretaker government
By the late 1950s, divisions within the AFPFL and increasing political instability created a serious governmental crisis. In 1958, U Nu transferred governmental responsibility to a caretaker administration headed by General Ne Win. The (article not yet created) General Ne Win. The caretaker period was intended to restore political stability and prepare the country for elections rather than permanently replace parliamentary government. Elections were subsequently organized, allowing civilian political competition to resume.
U Nu’s political grouping won the 1960 election, enabling him to return to office as prime minister. His renewed government attempted to address continuing political, constitutional and ethnic questions, but the restored civilian administration lasted less than two years. Tensions between the civilian political leadership and the military remained important, particularly over questions concerning national unity, federalism and the future structure of the Union.
Military coup of 1962
On 2 March 1962, General Ne Win and the Burmese military seized power in a coup and removed U Nu’s elected government. Parliament was dissolved, leading political figures were detained and the constitutional parliamentary system that had existed since independence was brought to an end. U Nu himself was imprisoned and remained in detention for several years as the military consolidated its control over the country.
The coup marked a fundamental turning point in Burma’s modern political history. The parliamentary system associated with U Nu was replaced by prolonged military rule, and political institutions were reorganized under the leadership of Ne Win. The change also affected administrative arrangements throughout the country, including those in Arakan, and eventually resulted in the termination of the Mayu Frontier Administration.
Opposition to military rule
After his release from detention, U Nu continued to advocate restoration of parliamentary democracy. He eventually left Burma and became involved in political opposition from abroad, establishing the Parliamentary Democracy Party and attempting to organize resistance to Ne Win’s military government. His efforts reflected his continuing claim that Burma should return to the constitutional and parliamentary system that had existed before the military coup.
These efforts did not succeed in restoring the pre-1962 political order, and U Nu later returned to Burma following an amnesty in 1980. Although he no longer possessed the political power he had held during the parliamentary era, he remained an important symbolic figure associated with civilian government and the period immediately following independence. His continuing opposition to military rule remained an important part of his later political identity.
The 1988 uprising
During the nationwide political upheaval of 1988, U Nu again attempted to take an active political role. He argued that the government removed by the military in 1962 had never constitutionally ceased to exist and asserted a claim to political authority based on the parliamentary government that had preceded Ne Win’s coup. His intervention occurred during a period of mass demonstrations, political uncertainty and demands for democratic government across Burma.
The military authorities did not recognize U Nu’s claim, and the political order that emerged after the 1988 uprising remained under military control. U Nu was subsequently placed under house arrest and remained under restrictions for several years before being released. His intervention nevertheless demonstrated that, even decades after the 1962 coup, he continued to identify himself with Burma’s former parliamentary and constitutional political system.
Writer and intellectual
In addition to his political career, U Nu was a prolific writer and translator whose works included plays, novels, political writings, speeches, religious works and memoirs. Literature and politics were closely connected in his life, and his writings frequently addressed moral, religious, social and political questions. His literary activity also reflected the broader intellectual environment of Burma’s nationalist movement during the colonial and early independence periods.
His autobiographical and political writings remain useful historical materials for understanding Burma’s nationalist movement, the transition to independence and the early decades of post-independence politics. They also provide insight into U Nu’s personal interpretation of major events in which he participated. His career therefore occupies a place not only in Burma’s political history but also in its twentieth-century intellectual and literary history.
Death and legacy
U Nu died on 14 February 1995 after a political life that had spanned British colonial rule, the independence movement, parliamentary democracy, military government and the later democracy movement. He remains particularly associated with Burma’s first period of parliamentary government following independence. His legacy includes his role in the independence movement, his leadership of civilian governments, his advocacy of Buddhism, his non-aligned foreign policy and his later opposition to military rule.
For Rohipedia, U Nu is particularly relevant to the history of Arakan and northern Arakan because his government established the Mayu Frontier Administration in 1961. His premiership therefore forms an important part of the twentieth-century political history of Maungdaw, Buthidaung, Rathedaung and the wider northern Arakan region. His policies and relationships with political representatives from the region are also relevant to understanding the administrative and political developments that preceded the military era.